Key Players in Curriculum Development Essays

Key Players in Curriculum Development Essays Key Players in Curriculum Development Essay Key Players in Curriculum Development Essay Axia College Material Appendix E Fill in the table by describing the role and influence each group has on curriculum. Some may have direct influence and some may have indirect influence. Identify whether their influence deals with selecting, maintaining, or evaluating the curriculum and in what ways they participate in that process. The first answer is provided as an example. Key Players in Curriculum Development Key PlayersRole and Influence on Curriculum Federal GovernmentThe federal government passes federal legislations, such as the No Child Left Behind Act, to which schools must measure up. NCLB mandates can directly influence the curriculum in schools. They mostly influence the selection of curriculum. StateThe state determines what the students should learned based upon grade level and also selects the materials to be used in order for them to learn. They give guidance through teacher aid material to help the teachers know how to present the material to the classroom such as syllabi or other documents created for each subject. DistrictThe district also plays a key role in supporting and evaluating whether the curriculum mandated by the state standards is being met. Districts may evaluate each grade level to ensure the curriculum is being presented effectively and the standards for each grade is being met. The main role of the district is ensuring the implementation of the set curriculum. SchoolThe school’s role is to present the materials given by the state and district to the teacher and ensure the curriculum is being taught in the classroom. Schools must make sure the student’s state standard of learning is being met and that the teachers are being held accountable in the classroom. TeacherThe teacher’s role has little control but probably the most responsibility. It is their role to ensure the students’ success as a learner. They must also evaluate the curriculum and materials given to them and make recommendations for changes hat may help students to be more successful. They must give positive and negative feedback so that the curriculum choices can be a constant improvement in the educational system. CommunityWhile the community does not have a direct role in the choosing of the curriculum, they do play a role in the allocation of funds through tax dollars. They play a role in voting for members who make the decisions about the curric ulum but control whether there is an increase in funding for schools based on their success.

Free Essays on Why Did Enron Collapse

Enron was one of the world’s largest electricity, natural gas, and broadband trading companies, with revenues of over $100 billion until its crash in the fall of 2001. Enron’s strategic intent was to become the blue-chip energy and communication company of the 21st century through its business efforts in four core areas: Enron Wholesale Services, Enron Broadband Services, Enron Energy Services, and Enron Transportation Services. Enron management claimed that each of these business units supported the company’s vision of â€Å"offering a wide range of physical, transportation, financial and technical solutions to thousands of customers around the world.† But Enron’s aspirations of becoming the leader in the energy and communications came to a screeching halt because of a strategy that was flawed by unethical behavior mainly GREED. But how does a corporation that becomes so successful become so greedy? I am of the opinion that the main reason was due to the corporate strategy that was implemented that was more concerned with the continuing growth of stock prices instead of looking at the long run. In the following paragraphs it is shown what constitutes a good strategy and examples of what went wrong. We can start of by saying that a good corporate strategy is one that is shaped by management having an ethical view of external and internal considerations. External considerations include societal, political, regulatory, and community factors along with competitive conditions and overall industry attractiveness; a company’s market opportunities and threats. External considerations on the other hand are of great importance in today’s business world due to the global market that exists. Primary internal considerations are company strengths, weaknesses, and competitive capabilities; managers’ personal ambitions, philosophies, and ethics; and the company’s culture and shared values. Internal considerations have ... Free Essays on Why Did Enron Collapse Free Essays on Why Did Enron Collapse Enron was one of the world’s largest electricity, natural gas, and broadband trading companies, with revenues of over $100 billion until its crash in the fall of 2001. Enron’s strategic intent was to become the blue-chip energy and communication company of the 21st century through its business efforts in four core areas: Enron Wholesale Services, Enron Broadband Services, Enron Energy Services, and Enron Transportation Services. Enron management claimed that each of these business units supported the company’s vision of â€Å"offering a wide range of physical, transportation, financial and technical solutions to thousands of customers around the world.† But Enron’s aspirations of becoming the leader in the energy and communications came to a screeching halt because of a strategy that was flawed by unethical behavior mainly GREED. But how does a corporation that becomes so successful become so greedy? I am of the opinion that the main reason was due to the corporate strategy that was implemented that was more concerned with the continuing growth of stock prices instead of looking at the long run. In the following paragraphs it is shown what constitutes a good strategy and examples of what went wrong. We can start of by saying that a good corporate strategy is one that is shaped by management having an ethical view of external and internal considerations. External considerations include societal, political, regulatory, and community factors along with competitive conditions and overall industry attractiveness; a company’s market opportunities and threats. External considerations on the other hand are of great importance in today’s business world due to the global market that exists. Primary internal considerations are company strengths, weaknesses, and competitive capabilities; managers’ personal ambitions, philosophies, and ethics; and the company’s culture and shared values. Internal considerations have ...

Environmental Racism and Justice Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Environmental Racism and Justice - Research Paper Example During the 19th century, the pollution of the Matanza-Riachuelo began, but unfortunately the matter has become extremely critical, and even dangerous. A catastrophe that will affect people’s health is bound to occur and this is according to the General of the Nation Auditor. Also, the matter cannot be governed, as there are no policies of a public nature, which exist. Three jurisdictions have the mandate of taking care of this matter, thus the reasons why complications have arisen. The population is at risk of suffering greatly, due to the consequences of the Matanza-Riachuelo river basin (Hoshaw, 2008). The environment has not been spared either, as it is degrading fast and its improvement is being hampered. Society will benefit if the river basin is well taken care of. The judges of this court issue, further want to make sure that a healthy environment exists. The government has the responsibility of ensuring that a constitutional mandate exists concerning this matter. All t he companies, which have been implicated in this matter, must provide information concerning the contents in the river and what they have dumped. They should make available their insurance, as well as the treatment used to treat the pollution in accordance to the country’s law on the environment. In environmental racism, often decision making opportunities are not offered to communities who are affected by pollution (Hoshaw, 2008). In the case of pollution of the river basin at Matanza-Riachuelo, environmental racism occurred.

The woman In US Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The woman In US - Research Paper Example Yoshiko Chuma was originally born at Osaka in Japan. Chuma migrated to America in the year of 1978 and hence forth, her struggle with life and at the same platform, the struggle to establish her thoughts, beliefs, perceptions and conceptions regarding the aesthetic features and stylistics of modern dance commenced. In the pursuit of her dreams, she arrived in America and started her career from Manhattan. Her stay in America and her dedication towards her work made her a leader in modern American dance within a very short span of time. In 1998, she almost made the world spell bound by her scintillating performance in Astoria Pools in Queens. She tried to recreate and stage an audience-participatory performance art named â€Å"swim-dance†. Her pieces, which are Avant –Grade include â€Å"Sundown†, a marvelous performance that takes seven long hours. â€Å"Sundown† is an exposition of cubism and is mounted at the Issue Project Space in the year of 2006. This is a quite unconventionality as an artist as Ms. Chuma prefers to walk apart the queue. Dance for Ms Chuma is more than an art, it is an expression and a platform to say things unsaid, feel things never felt and she bears the witness of an entire period framed in a time in which she grew up. Ms Chuma said, â€Å"The majority goes one way, and I’m always kind of biting my finger.† In her words, â€Å"I don’t want to go in that group, and I don’t know why. My generation in Japan might have something to do with it. We are postwar children, and probably some of my childhood is hitting this landscape. Nobody would choose this space for a dance performance† (Kourlas, â€Å"For Dance, a Cubism of a Different Sort†). â€Å"The area reminds me of a painting of Brooklyn, maybe from the 70’s,† she continued. â€Å"It’s not very clean. Manhattan is totally clean now. I think, I want to introduce audiences to this difficult

Personal Learning Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal Learning Management - Assignment Example This application will use a methodology known as Object Oriented Programming where each object in the system can process the data and interact with the other objects. The benefit of this methodology is that it makes re-use of data through objects. It also is a collection of interacting objects that can be reviewed at any time (Batra, 2005). This methodology is also favorable since it creates instances within the application. This means that the programmer can place the data where it is not directly accessible to the rest of it. This application is split into different modules. The use of modules ensures that changes in one module do not necessarily affect the states of the others. The systematic approach of the software development life cycle (SDLC) ensures that timelines are conserved and the quality of the application is maintained. This purpose of this program is to prompt the user to input values of leaning items. These inputs will preferably be numerical. The program should use a function to save or store the information in a local database. The economic values the user will input should correspond to the items of learning. This can only happen when constraints are created to relate these two objects in the system. When these constraints are met then the user may save the information. The user should be able to re trieve the data stored in the system through a function in the

Understanding Economic Policy Reform Essay Example for Free

Understanding Economic Policy Reform Essay What is the point of loudly proclaiming reforms if these are not aimed at improving the well-being of a large majority of the population? And if that is their goal, why should reforms be unpopular? In many areas of policy, there may ex1 Quoted by Jose Maria Maravall in Luiz Carlos Bresser Pereira, Maravall, and Adam Przeworski (1993). â€Å" T ist â€Å"technical† uncertainty as to what the appropriate solution is to the problems at hand. Think of President Clinton’s health care plan, for example, or of global warming. Consequently, reforms will arouse opposition if they are viewed as applying the wrong fix or if they are perceived as being primarily redistributive (that is, zero-sum). What is remarkable about current fashions in economic development policy (as applied to both developing and transitional economies), however, is the extent of convergence that has developed on the broad outlines of what constitutes an appropriate economic strategy. This strategy emphasizes fiscal rectitude, competitive exchange rates, free trade, privatization, undistorted market prices, and limited intervention (save for encouraging exports, education, and infrastructure). Faith in the desirability and efficacy of these policies unites the vast majority of professional economists in the developed world who are concerned with issues of development. 2 2 The convergence is not complete of course. But compared to two decades ago, the various sides have moved substantially closer to each other. One indicator of this is the recent book by Bresser Pereira, Maravall, and Przeworski (1993), which advocates a â€Å"social democratic† approach. The views expressed in this book concede an inor- 9 10 Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XXXIV (March 1996) we observe such instances of collective irrationality. The events of the last decade have underscored the need to understand the political-economy of policy making. One of the eventual consequences of the global debt crisis that erupted in 1982 was a wave of market-oriented economic reforms, the likes of which have never been seen. The reforms were strongest and most sustained in Latin America, where countries like Bolivia, Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil joined Chile in orthodoxy. But this was very much a global phenomenon. â€Å"Stabilization† and â€Å"structural adjustment† became the primary preoccupation of government leaders in Asia and Africa as well, even though the commitment to economic orthodoxy varied across countries and over time. These countries were in turn soon joined by the previously socialist economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Economists who had cut their teeth in Latin America’s economic quagmires became the advisors and analysts of these transitional economies. Even India, the giant archetype of a closed, import-substituting economy among developing countries, embarked on a process of economic liberalization in 1991 (see Jagdish Bhagwati 1993 and Arvind Panagariya 1994). These reforms were encouraging to economists and a vindication of sorts to those among them who had long advocated market-oriented reforms. But they in turn raise their own puzzles. Most fundamental of all, why are so many governments reforming now, after decades of adherence to policies of an opposite kind? This question poses a particularly important challenge to political economists: an understanding of these countries’ experiences now requires a theory that explains not only why seemingly dysfunctional policies had been initially un- Hence economists are often torn between two conflicting perspectives: on the one hand, good economic policy should produce favorable outcomes and therefore should prove also to be good politics; on the other hand, the implementation of good economic policy is often viewed as requiring â€Å"strong† and â€Å"autonomous† (not to say authoritarian) leadership. The experience of Chile, a country which has perhaps gone further than any other in implementing liberal economic policies, provides a good example. An essay on Chile’s reform strategy by Jose Pinera (1994), an economist and minister of labor and social security under General Pinochet, concludes: â€Å"[i]n the end, good policy is good politics† (p. 231). The irony is that most of the reforms the author glowingly discusses in the preceding pages required the suspension of normal politics and as heavy a dose of authoritarianism as seen anywhere. Good economics does often turn out to be good politics, but only eventually. Policies that work do become popular, but the time lag can be long enough for the relationship not to be exploitable by would-be reformers. In Chile’s case, free market policies (implemented after 1973) were eventually resoundingly endorsed in the presidential elections of 1989 and have become the envy of Latin America. 3 Conversely, bad economics can be popular, if only temporarily. President Alan Garcia’s popularity soared in Peru during his first two years in office (1985–86), thanks to expansionary fiscal policies whose medium-term unsustainability should have been obvious to anyone with common sense (see Ricardo Lago 1991). The puzzle is why dinate amount to the consensus view, and depart from it in remarkably few details. I will discuss this book in Section IV. 3 For a recent evaluation, see Barry Bosworth, Rudiger Dornbusch, and Ral Labn (1994). Rodrik: Understanding Economic Policy Reform dertaken and then maintained for so long, but also why these policies were suddenly abandoned en masse during the 1980s, often by the same politicians who had been among their most ardent supporters. Second, while the reforms were inspired at least in part by the East Asian experience, they took place much more quickly and, in many areas, are going considerably beyond those undertaken in East Asia. This raises the question of whether the new wave of reformers have internalized the correct lessons from the East Asian experience. Finally, are there any helpful rules for reformers to follow in guiding their policies through complicated political terrain? Can one hope to develop a â€Å"how-to† manual for the reformist politician? Puzzlement over such questions has led to a large and growing literature. A very short bibliography would include books by Merilee Grindle and John Thomas (1991), Robert Bates and Krueger (1993), Krueger (1993), Przeworski (1991), Ranis and Syed Mahmood (1992), Bresser Pereira, Maravall, and Przeworski (1993), Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman (1992), Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards (1993), Haggard and Steven Webb (1994), Lance Taylor (1994), Williamson (1994), and Ian Little et al. (1993), not to mention countless papers. As this partial list indicates, both economists and political scientists have devoted their attention to these issues, often together in coauthored or coedited works. Indeed, no other area of economics or political science that I can think of has spawned so much interdisciplinary work. 5 In this essay, I will provide an econo4 One recent survey—Mariano Tommasi and Andres Velasco 1995—which overlaps with this one deserves special mention. 5 The litera ture on the economics of policy reform is of course even larger. For recent surveys, see Vittorio Corbo and Stanley Fischer (1995) and Rodrik (1995b). 1 mist’s perspective on the political economy of policy reform. I begin by examining the origins and analytical content of the new orthodoxy in development policy (Section II). I will focus here on two issues in particular which I feel remain in need of clarification. One of these concerns the distinction between (a) macroeconomic policies aimed at economic stability, such as fiscal, monetary, and exchange rate policies, and (b) liberalization policies aimed at structural reform and growth, such as the removal of relative-price distortions and the reduction of state intervention. It has become commonplace to conflate these two groups of policies, but for analytical purposes they are best kept apart. As we shall see, they also have different political-economy underpinnings. Moreover, maintaining the distinction reminds us that the consensus on what constitutes appropriate structural reform is based on much shakier theoretical and empirical grounds than is the consensus on the need for macroeconomic stability. The second issue concerns the appropriate lessons to be drawn from the experience of East Asian success stories. The new orthodoxy has tended to draw a somewhat biased picture that needs correction. Next, I will turn to the reforms of the 1980s and 1990s. This experience has opened an important window on the motivations of politicians, as well as on the nature of interactions between the economy and the polity. As indicated above, an important question is why so many countries have suddenly caught the reform bug. The confluence of economic crisis with reform has led to the natural supposition that crisis is the instigator of reform, a hypothesis that keeps reappearing in the literature and yet is inadequately analyzed.

The Organizational Theories of Max Weber

The Organizational Theories of Max Weber Bureaucracy is a distinct concept within organizational settings since it exemplifies a working organizational design as per the ideologies of Max Weber. The principles of bureaucracy derive their basis from the organizational practices and theory. It is thus noted that Weber deduced that bureaucratic organizations conformed to streamlined organizational practices and constructs that improved productivity and efficiency. Diverse factors contributed to efficiency and productivity thus a rational career structure that typifies relations among positions. It is equally noted that such positions are arranged in reference to hierarchy thus according rights, responsibilities to the position within the hierarchy. It is noted that Weber stressed that current bureaucracies need to be managed in accordance to the stipulated rules, procedures and policies that can be learnt. Furthermore, a need arises to record events and transactions so that corrective measures can be initiated. In as much as t he current understanding of bureaucracy differs from Webers ideologies, it is crucial to exemplify its ideal characteristics, the roles of power and authority, the models weaknesses and potency. Bureaucracy as per the ideologies of Weber is characterized by specification of jobs consequently illuminating scope of authority, rights and responsibilities. It is crucial to understand the concept of job specification within the constraints of organizational theory since it highlights the strategies required to satisfactorily complete a task. Arguments by technocrats posit that specification of jobs accords a worker the right to engage in practices within the organization thus attaining stipulated objectives. It is also argued that Weber shunned the operational and tactical levels of an organization consequently focusing on the managerial levels thus limiting specialization (Du Gay, 2000). Authority is a distinct concept that exemplifies bureaucracy, it is thus crucial to deduce this concept by analysis of theoretical constructs and literature. First, authority is widely deduced as the legitimate use of power within the constraints of an organization. Such an organization needs to be defined by rules that enhance appropriate relations. Secondly, authority is derived from a position within an organization and not a person. Assumptions made indicate that for a person to reach a position of authority he or she must be subjected to scrutiny. This is with reference to seniority and skills; furthermore, this process should be conducted in a legitimate and organizational based manner. This will consolidate the position consequently making it simple to exercise authority. Another assumption pertaining to authority is that an individual may lose his or her authority, upon deviation from the norms established within an organization (Clegg, Kornberger Pitsis, 2008). This is part of the discipline process and adherence to the stipulated policies, laws and regulations. As illustrated in popular literature, power and authority assumes a personal dimension. This contradicts Webers ideologies on bureaucracy (Daft, 2007). Organizations are consequently urged to strive to enhance legitimate authority controlled by respect for personnel rights and responsibilities. Centralization is a key bureaucratic concept that needs to be explored by drawing reference to the organizational theory. This highlights the organizational level constructs which are cogent and indispensable for a functional bureaucracy. In order to explore this concept further, it is crucial to hypothesize the degree of specialization since it emphasizes distinct roles played by organizational members; thus, centralization refers to the extent to which such roles are correlated. This is by relations that draw their functionality from a familiar central position or set of positions with the ability to issue commands. Organizational theory and literature affirm that the degrees of centralization in organizations are different. This means that some organizations are more centralized thus they have a single center of command through which all decisions pass. This characterizes a typical bureaucracy thus indicating that possible deviations from this concept lack the spirit and letter of Webers ideologies. A key concept pertaining to centralization indicates that growth in bureaucracy is commensurate to increase in the level of centralization. However, when the level of centralization in an organization is high then the ability to communicate among the members is significantly diminished. This is because other aspects of the bureaucratic organizational design such as formalization and specialization are increasingly manifested (Clegg, Kornberger Pitsis, 2008). Additional key arguments pertaining to centralization indicate that large organizations with departments responsible for definite processes are habitually accorded the opportunity to make their own decisions. This means that when organizations become increasingly large, they decentralize in order to enhance competence and productivity. The classical theory provides insight thus comprehending the concept of centralization through reconciliation of the contrary requisites of centralization and decentralization to attain flexibility in the functioning of different constituents of an organization. Several theories and practices as pertains to public administration equally illuminate the concept of centralization. First, it is a move based on increased administrative competency consequently empowering leaders to engage in elaborate decision-making exercises. Secondly, centralization in the public sector is based on the need to provide uniform services to the people. This becomes simpler when the power to make decisions is with a well-defined position (Denhardt, 2007). Rules within the bureaucratic model constitute the formalization process. These are exemplified by processes or procedures that exemplify the goals and objectives of an organization. These rules are derived from written manuals, policy documents or job descriptions that indicate the rights, as well as the duties of personnel. The classical theory indicates that organizations that are more developed rely, on formal structures such as policies and rules, to achieve discipline and concerted efforts. This is because decision making authorities are unlikely to maintain discipline and control through observing the actions of employees. Furthermore, such actions will only result to conflicts and diminished levels of understanding. It is worth mentioning that Webers ideologies on rules are best exemplified when they are formally coded. The rules that specify tasks need to be distinct and specific; furthermore, they need to be achieved by formal categories of personnel who are qualified and c omprehend the nature of the tasks. Hierarchy is an important constituent of bureaucracy since it supports other organizational attributes such as specialization and centralization. Weber highlights a key constituent of hierarchy, which entails span of control and reporting process. This means that there should be a clear illustration of which leader or manager reports to whom. This enhances unity of command or direction consequently exemplifying the principles of management as fronted by Fayol (Daft, 2007). At this point, it is interesting to note that the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy are related to the aspects fronted by Fayol with regards to the principles of management. In the event that spans of control are diminished thus the employees reporting to a supervisor are few then the hierarchy assumes a tall stature; furthermore, the vice versa is equally true. A key definitive principle of hierarchy indicates that it is an aspect of complex systems, which are likely to evolve rapidly when stable intermediar y forms are exemplified (Morgan, 1995). Diverse positions within a hierarchy require different qualifications; thus, the need to adopt a clear career structure. This means that personnel can only be promoted on the basis of seniority or distinguished performance within the organization. This will enhance the level of respect for the hierarchy within the organization. It is not forgotten that positions in a hierarchy are paid differently since they carry out different functions and roles. Supervision of personnel is a key concept in bureaucracy since it enhances growth of organizations. The process ensures that personnel act in accordance with the knowledge descriptions that exemplify their roles. Supervision as per the administrative theory fronted by Fayol enhances adherence to rules and technical specifications. It is crucial to highlight that supervision draws recognition for the hierarchy within an organization together with the sources of power. Grey and Willmott indicate that organizational supervision is the key to governance within an institution (Grey and Willmott, 2005). In order to accord the supervision process increased influence, it is crucial to train employees on requirements so that the supervision process does not seem like a learning process. Supervision and training reduces the problems that are associated with specialization within an organization thus the need to ensure they are included in organizational processes (Clegg, Kornberger Pitsis, 2008). Power and authority play distinct roles within an organization as exemplified by the bureaucracy model. It is notable that the cornerstone of any organization that enables it achieves its goals and objectives are the people. This means that power and authority focus on enhancing relations among people. This concept is further exemplified by the argument, which states that loyalty in an organization is directed towards a position and not personalities. This culminates in the impersonality of relations thus focusing on objectives and roles. An additional argument indicates that exercising power and authority in reference to Webers principles means that rules, directives, and discretion are applied uniformly (Daft, 2007). This is concerning definite situations in organizational settings. In the end, this positively influences organizational practices thus facilitating growth. Secondly, power and authority is instrumental in enhancing communication within an organization (Daft, 2007). This is concerning communication theories within organizations, which highlights that top leaders usually surround themselves with loyal executives. This is to stay in touch with events taking place within organizations. It is further acknowledged that authority makes it simple to issue directives to this effect. Furthermore, authority and power makes it simple to build alliances since it enhances unity in direction. Consider the following hypothesis; a management team that supports a leaders decisions and policies contribute to the alliance building within an organization. This ideology works in a reverse direction since lower-level managers can exercise greater authority. This enhances building alliances especially when they relate positively with their superiors. Empowerment is a theory explored within the organizational setting that differs significantly from Webers ideologies; however, technocrats argue that it exemplifies bureaucracy in light of the changing organizational environment. It entails pushing power and authority down the organization to enable the lower-level managers to achieve their target. This eventually contributes to the attainment of organizational goals and objectives (Daft, 2007). Power and authority in this scenario aids in the sharing of responsibilities and delegation of roles. In order to attain significant empowerment levels in an organization, it is crucial that, employees receive information concerning the performance of an organization. Secondly, employees need to draw sufficient power to make decisions (Daft, 2007). Thirdly, employees need to have abilities and skills to make use of the power accorded to them. Resource dependence as a theory exemplified during the 1970s exemplifies the role of power and authority in an organization (Clegg, Kornberger Pitsis, 2008). It states that these aspects define the organizational structure by highlighting organizational considerations. This theory departs from the traditional explanations that expound the formal structure. It is noted that this status is achieved when power and authority are utilized to maintain organizational autonomy. This eventually makes an organization stand out, upon comparison to other entities in the society. Power and authority necessitates a shift from productivity and efficiency as the sole determinants of the success of an organization. It exemplifies the fact that efficiency can only be attained when relevant entities exercise power so as to achieve control and command. It is thus reinstated that power and authority exemplifies an organizations structure making it distinct. This makes it stand out in the market, a facto r that contributes to success and proper positioning. It has been fronted within organizational settings that Fayols theory with regard to management functions can only be attained when power and authority are exercised with reference to bureaucracy. It is necessary to mention the management functions which include planning and control; furthermore, organizing and leading are equally crucial. These functions can only be attained when a leader, executive or related personnel within an organization can exercise authority consequently wielding substantive power. The strengths of organizations that are aligned to bureaucracy are best illustrated by the specialization of tasks. Literature indicates that this enables employees to gather skills on a particular activity within an organization consequently doing it well, upon comparison to job rotation which culminates in diminished specialization levels. It is thus noted that this model augments the efficiency with which tasks are handled in an organization. It is necessary to illustrate the Japanese theory of management, which advocates for job rotation and its effects on an organization (Grey and Willmott, 2005). This can be summarized as lack of specialization such that tasks are accomplished by persons who lack refined knowledge. It is further noted that Webers ideologies on specialization can be equated to Fayols administrative theory. The second strength of bureaucracy is exemplified by the principle of a well-defined career structure. This means that promotion to a senior level or position within a hierarchy is attained on the basis of seniority or attaining the relevant qualifications. It is affirmed that this accords legitimacy to the authority and power wielded by positions within an organization (Grey and Willmott, 2005). Thirdly, bureaucracy allows for the incorporation rules and procedures that guide the actions of employees within an organization. These rules equally stipulate the rights of such employees. This ultimately reduces the need for supervision by observing employees and deducing changes in their performance and attitude. Literature analyzed from organizations such as the UPS, in US indicates that formalization thus initiation of rules and procedures positively influences other processes (Daft, 2007). These processes include specialization and standardization; furthermore, discipline in an organi zation is wholly dependent on the ability to focus on formalization. Finally, bureaucracy propagates hierarchy consequently contributing to respect and adherence to the concepts of scalar chain as exemplified by Fayol. However, Weber failed to forecast a circumstance when a junior person within the hierarchy may need to contact a higher authority, upon notification of his or her immediate boss. This means that scalar chain as exemplified by Weber draws its foundation from hierarchy (Castells, 1996). The benefits of the hierarchy are illustrated exercising power and authority. The weaknesses associated with the bureaucratic model are numerous; however, the most significant entails focusing on the rational and instrumental aspects of human beings. It thus forgets that emotions and societal aspects also affect an organization. This model fails to address moral personality as a determinant of the success of an organization. It is worth mentioning that such a weakness is addressed later in history by Elton Mayo, as exemplified by the human relations theory. This deduces that an organization needs to exist as a technical, social, and economic entity consequently addressing the needs that come with such a position. Secondly, bureaucracy poses a challenge when it comes to the ethical comportment of an organization (Du Gay, 2000). Weber illustrates that this model is a manifestation of ethics since personal capacities are exemplified. However, counter arguments indicate that focusing on leaders and managers consequently forgetting the tactical level amounts to unethical practice. Thirdly, bureaucracy is associated with difficulty in making decisions and executing strategies. This is in light of competitive pressure from an organizations external environment and quality management. Furthermore, increase in the knowledge based roles indicates that decisions need to be made swiftly. This calls for decentralization with the aim of empowering teams and groups so that they can engage in decision-making processes. Consider the following argument that exemplifies the concept mentioned above. Swift decision-making, managing eminence at the point of production and provision of services at the location of customers means that decisions must be made at the lower-levels of an organization (Clegg, Kornberger Pitsis, 2008). These ideologies depart from the principles highlighted by Weber thus highlighting a weakness. Lastly, bureaucracy is cumbersome when poorly executed. Consider General Motors bureaucracy, which is faulted for its inefficiency and diminished productivity. The regional managers indicate that it is impossible to run their branches when directives come from headquarters. These managers have to wait for a long time to receive authorization thus influencing the process (Daft, 2007). Weber visualized an efficient organization that is capable of meeting its objectives through adhering to the concepts of bureaucracy. In conclusion, Webers ideologies focused on a structure of authority that enhances order within an organization. He thus indicates that the model values accountability, precision, reliability and productivity. However, bureaucracy is currently mistaken for officialdom and circumstances associated with red tape. It is noted that organizations currently employing bureaucratic strategies are embroiled in organizational inefficiencies. This is partly attributed to the fusion of this model with unrelated practices. The success of this model is dependent on the effectiveness with which power and authority are exercised in diverse organizational circumstances.